Cross-Cultural Trends of Religious Sacrifice

In our previous blog posts we have specifically focused on the Capac Hucha ritual in the Inka empire. However, in order to fully understand the Capac Hucha ceremony that the Inkas held, we felt that it was necessary to investigate religious sacrifice on a more global scale.  By looking at other cases, we hope to add to our knowledge of ritualistic religious ceremonies. This investigation of human sacrifice in other cultures will allow us to understand the religious connotations better because often there are common patterns in a culture’s belief system that justify such an act.  In this blog post we will be focusing on the religious sacrifice in the Aztec Empire, as it is a widely discussed subject and is a good source of information.  However, steps must be taken to analyze the articles carefully as some scholars have romanticized the descriptions, even exaggerating it as an attempt to come to terms with it’s cultural significance. 

Our knowledge of the Aztec Empire is derived from the multiple ethnohistoric volumes of the Spanish conquistadors and friars, accounting through Indian informants how the dynamics of the Aztec empire functioned.  The rest is found solely through archaeological remains. Teotihuacan, Mesoamerica’s first truly urban center, was a center for economic and cultural exchange throughout the empire.  At Teotihuacan there were massive ceremonial constructions, intricate and esoteric murals, and industries engaged in mass-production of religious objects, allowing scholars to conclude that religion and ideology were highly enforced and believed by the inhabitants. (1)
Scholars have long known that human sacrifice was practiced in Mesoamerica.  When discussing the topic of human sacrifice often the conflict of the indigenous peoples as either noble savages or primitive barbarians is brought up. However, this is a imperialistic western approach to understanding the Aztecs; to truly comprehend such practices, bias must be left behind. 

A picture taken from the Codex Mendoza,

created by native scribes for the Spanish in 1541-1542,

showing a ritual Aztec sacrifice.

The Aztecs believed in a concept of "tonalli" or the "animating spirit". Tonalli was believed to be held in the blood, and since blood flowed from the heart, this was the organ that was offered up to satisfy  the god's appetite. It was believed that without these sacrifices, all motion would stop, including the movement of the sun. Therefor the Aztecs’ practice of human sacrifices were intended to keep the sun from halting its orbit.(2)

Every 18 months the Aztecs held a cycle, and within each of the 18 months there was ritual sacrifice.  The victim would be displayed as part of the ritual, they would then be laid on a slab where their heart would be removed and held up to the sun. Upon the retrieval of the heart the body would be thrown down the stairs of the temple/pyramid. In order to dispose of the body remains, the bodies would be given to animals or put on display (the heads). Some scholars even mentioned that cannibalism was also a method used of  to dispose of the bodies. The idea of cannibalism was mentioned because the citizens were going through a famine. However, if cannibalism had been practiced as part of the ceremony, the eating of humans would not have been from the result of hunger or shortage of food, but rather as a way to connect with the Gods. 

Though the Aztecs often abducted sacrificial victims from the surrounding areas, they never fully conquered the surrounding states because they needed a continual supply of sacrifices for Huitzilpochtli.(3)

 “In City of Sacrifice: The Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence in Civilization, David Carrasco addresses the personal bias issues that are presented when dealing with trying to understand the cultural significance of human sacrifice. His reaction upon seeing the site of child sacrifice was such:

“I remember the day my academic deadpan about cities and sacrifice cracked into a tight grimace. I had just looked down into the offering cache at the Great Aztec Temple in Mexico City where the skeletal remains of forty-two children lay as a messy remnant of a fifteenth-century, precious offering to the rain gods. The Mexican archaeologist Eduardo Matos Moctezuma was giving me a tour of the site, which was under intense excavation, and said, pointing, “Here is something beautiful and profound in its terror.” Peering down into the ritual receptacle where children’s skulls and infants’ bones lay strewn and tangled in what looked like a chaotic, even wild, arrangement, I could see greenstone beads near several mouths, flakes of blue pigment that had been sprinkled on the bodies, necklaces of greenstone, and several disks with appliquéd turquoise mosaics and turtle shell.  I knew from my study of Aztec cosmology that this spot might be one of the entrances to Tlaloc’s paradise, the rain god’s aquatic afterlife. I felt a visceral response that relocated my attention from ideas to feelings, from my head to my stomach and heart, for I was a father of a young child and I wondered what possible creative hermeneutic turn I could spin onto this scene…it was evident that violence against humans was a profound human necessity and practice for the Aztecs in their Capital City.”(4)

There were other methods to human sacrifice including being shot with an arrow, drowned, burned, or otherwise mutilated. As to why these sacrifices took place is still debatable. Some  critics argue that it was for  the overwhelming aspect of Aztec religious life in the imaginations of non-Aztecs. Along with religious reasoning it was also argued that it was ritualistic violence. This had been practiced all throughout the Mesoamerican world, but the Tenochca practiced it on a larger  scale, never seen before.  We don't know a great deal about the details, but we have a fairly good idea of its general character and justification. Throughout Mesoamerica, the theology involved the concept that the gods gave things to human beings only if they were nourished by human beings. Among the Maya, for instance, the priests would nourish the gods by drawing their own blood by piercing their tongues, ears, extremities, or genitals. Other sacrifices involved prayer, offerings of food, sports, and even dramas. The Aztecs practiced all of these sacrifices, including blood-letting. But the Aztec theologians also developed the notion that the gods are best nourished by the living hearts of sacrificed captives; the braver the captive, the more nourishing the sacrifice. This theology led to widespread wars of conquest in search of sacrificial victims both captured in war and paid as tribute by a conquered people.
View the Video below to get a better understanding of Aztec Religion and Culture

Interesting Discoveries!

Check out these videos to see some of the discoveries archaeologists have made in digs.

The skull was intentionally reshaped when the child was alive- broadening of the skull front. There was a flattening in the back and front of the head.More clues, tells that the child died in the pre-hispanic time when the ritual was manifest, this was also a period when ritual sacrifice was common, so could this child have been the victim of Aztec sacrifice?

For information on new discoveries made on this subject visit these webcites:
http://news.softpedia.com/news/Mass-Child-Sacrifice-Executed-by-the-Aztecs-039-Predecessors-57263.shtml

Footnotes:

1) Conrad, Geoffrey W., and Arthur A. Demarest. Religion and Empire the Dynamics of Aztec and Inca Expansionism. Cambridge [u.a.: Cambridge Univ., 1995. Print.

2)http://www.ambergriscaye.com/pages/mayan/azteccannibalism.html

3) Carrasco, David. City of Sacrifice: the Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence in Civilization. Boston: Beacon, 1999. Print.1,23-24.

4)  Carrasco, David. City of Sacrifice: the Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence in Civilization. Boston: Beacon, 1999. Print

Mummified Child Sacrifice

Ice Mummies: Frozen in Heaven

In the last blog post we gave a history of the Inka religion as it correlated with the Capac Hucha rituals preformed in the empire.  With this information in hand, it should be easier to interpret and understand the cultural reasons behind the Capac Hucha.  To review, the Capac Hucha was a ritual that was undertaken at monumental occasions in Inka history, most specifically the Death or Coronation of an emperor, which involved the ritual sacrifice of children in order to appease the gods.  Despite our own cultural bias and morals, when viewing this it is important to remember that this was a different society and that such a ritual was considered an honor; many children were voluntarily sacrificed. Human sacrifices, particularly those of children, were made in times of famine, epidemic, and military defeat, or on the summer and winter solstices, the most sacred events of the Inka ceremonial calendar.  
Through archaeological data, the further study of the beliefs associated with this practiced have been significantly increased.  Such is the case with the story we will focus on today regarding two 15 year old girls, one dubbed Sarita by the team that found her, whose bodies were  found in amazingly preserved condition at a site of a Capac Hucha shrine. 

Location of Archaeological site in which Sarita was found

One of the most magnificent discoveries that took the study of Inka rite of Capac Hucha to a much deeper level was that of a seven year old girl nicknamed “Sarita.” She was discovered in September 1996 by Johan Reinhard and José Antonio Chavez on top of the 18,070 foot  Andean peak Sara Sara in Southern Peru. As mentioned in the previous blog post, mountains were particularly sacred to the Inka empire and were considered divine themselves.  The location of these shrines would not have been random, but would have been strategically chosen.  

The Inca’s selected the loacations for their Capac Hucha by choosing places near to what they believed to be their most powerful deities, the deities of the sky. Therefore many of these locations are found on the highest points throuhout the Inca Empire. These Include Cerro El Plomo and cerro Esmeralda in Chile, Llullaillacoin Argentina, and Mt. Chachani in Peru. Llullaillaco is also the fifth highest volcano in the world and the seventh highest mountain in the Western hemisphere. Geologists have not been able to determine if the Inca may have witnessed an eruption of this volcano, but have dated the latest eruption to 1877. 

Mountain Sara Sara: Location in which Sarita was found

Sarita’s decomposed body was found in a fetal position on a platform that faced the sun on the eastern side of the mountain. It was very well preserved, due to the climate conditions of the mountain therefore enabling scientists to better analyze what was going on 500 years ago when she was given as an offering to the Inka Gods. This is a very important discovery to the archaeological analysis because the way in which the body was oriented and taken care of (the food and drink given) before the ritual will allow archaeologist to better understand actual proceedings of the Capac Hucha ritual itself. 

Check out the video in the blog above labeled "Mummified Child Sacrifice" to see how Sarita's hair was analyzed by scientists and used to discover her diet! 

It is very important for archaeologists to examine the orientation and decoration of such a burial, especially with a case like Sarita. So lets see what they found!

Found in a fetal position, Sarita had been placed on the platform along with three gold and silver statuettes and a small bundle of coca leaves, these were traditional offerings to the mountain gods. Seven more artifacts were discovered including the following six-inch-tall silver female statuette draped in textiles; one silver and one gold male statuette; a female figurine and a llama carved out of spondylus shell; and one gold and one silver llama--were discovered in a cache on a nearby platform.

The children were buried with an elaborate assemblage of luxury artifacts, including gold and silver miniature female figurines, red Spondylus shell figurines of females and llamas, several sets of fine ceramics, gold, silver, and bronze tupu pins, a garment covered with gilded metal disks, and large amounts of cloth. 

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Miniature female figurine from child burial assemblage

Approximately 3 m from the group burial, an additional child was uncovered with the most elaborate artifact of all—a silver figurine approximately 25 cm in height with a Spondylus shell headdress and fragments of cloth. The figurine was modeled with male anatomy and its hands positioned across its chest. Around this artifact were miniature gold, silver, and Spondylus figurines of human males and llamas, with even more rich offerings found nearby, including miniature silver and gold headdress ornaments, gold and silver llama figurines, Spondylus shell male human figures, a miniature bracelet, and pieces of gold foil.

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Silver Male figurine with spondylus shell headdress

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Gold, Silver, and Spondylus figurines of human males and llamas

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This  offering found adjacent to the child burials along with miniature silver and gold headdress ornaments, gold and silver llama figurines, Spondylus shell male human figures, a miniature bracelet, and pieces of gold foil.

Citations 

"Inka Child Sacrifice." Archaeology Magazine. Web. 28 Oct. 2010. <http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/inka.html>.


  Capa Hucha locations: Llullaillaco, world’s highest active volcano,Cerro El Plomo and Cerro Esmeralda in Chile, Mt. Lullaillaco in Argentina, and Mt. Chachani in Peru. 
 

http://archaeology.about.com/od/caterms/qt/capacocha.htm

http://archaeology.about.com/od/caterms/qt/capacocha.htm

http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_1630.html

http://www.volcanolive.com/llullaillaco.html

The Capac Hucha of the Inca Emperors

     

     On the last blog post, we talked about human sacrificing in general. This week we are going to focus on our main interest, which is the Capac Hucha of the Inca emperors.  This practice included the human sacrificing of children to the mountain gods.  In order to fully understand all the elements of this topic and refrain from personal cultural bias, we really wanted to get a better sense of who the Incan people were.  So we decided to do some research.

       Our main source of knowledge on the Incas through standard chronicles, written by Spanish settlers who wanted to tell their “compatriots about the riches and marvels of a world that was new to them.” (Niles, 1). These chronicles cover a good deal of the vast expanse that was the Inca empire.  This included descriptions of the remarkable armies and treasuries of the Inca Kings, in which they had collected a large portion of gold and silver.  The narratives also converse about many military encounters and victories that were celebrated.  Ceremonies of marriages, funerals and different festivals and rituals are also documented. That of human sacrifice, specifically that of the Capac Hucha ritual was documented and by looking at these chronicles as well as the archaeological evidence presented in the modern-day Inca empire, scholars can gather a good understanding of the cultural meaning behind the ceremony.

        The Capac Hucha was considered one of the most honored dedications to the gods the Incas could give.  By presenting the human body, elaborately dressed and decorated as an offering, the Incas were showing their appreciation and respect by bestowing their deities with the most valuable thing they could: a human life.  According to written records by Father Bernabe Cobo, the Incas dedicated human offerings to the sun god Inti, to the weather god Illapa, and to the creator Viracocha.  This could vary to include local deities depending on the region where the shrines were erected.  

            “They made sacrifices to the Sun so that he would make the plants grow to the Thunder, so that he would make it rain and not hail or freeze, and to the rest of the special gods and second causes. First they would speak with Viracocha and afterwards they would speak with the special gods. And in their sacrifices to all the universal huacas they would plead for the health of the Inca.” Father Bernabe Cobo.

What is Human Sacrifice?

 

 

Who ????

What ?????

When ??????

Where did this happen?????

So what’s all this talk about Human Sacrifice??

Well, Let me tell you about it!

What is Human Sacrifice?

Human Sacrifice is a ritualistic practice that often has religious connotations.  It is a custom that has traces throughout history and is not specific to only one area in the world. Instead, scholars find that the ritual of human sacrifice has been present in many different cultures, though the ceremony and beliefs following the practice are different.

Human Sacrificing is a topic that most individuals who are not exposed to, do not know much about. The very thought of killing another human being can quickly come off as exceedingly distant as well as evil. However, we must not be quick to judge the topic at hand. Instead we must look into this societal tradition with open eyes and find out information about how, when, or why human sacrifice is practiced. Figuring out this information is vital as human sacrifice is indeed a practice that has roots in several parts of the world. Since it is not autonomous to one particular environment, it provides a platform through which many different cultures around the world can be compared and through which such an interesting phenomenon can be analyzed.  Through this, many different cultures around the world are bound together. It is here that we can see the different religions and beliefs that cultures have on human sacrificing, for religion plays a large role in these ceremonies.

Religious Aspect

Though the world of the sacred is big in any type of ceremony that most societies perform, sacrifice is especially important in that it is done specifically with religious undertones in place. According to religious beliefs, sacrifice is similar to praying because it is a method of communication. The word sacrifice means, “to make holy”. Therefore those who are performing the sacrifice are doing so in the name of their religion. Those who sacrifice goods, tools or animals are doing so to please some form of higher society, most often different religious deities. These sacrifices or offerings are preformed to gain the favor of the gods. This is because rituals are often seen as a platform of communication between the mortal and immortal world and therefore regarded as an important way in which a society can function. Individuals who engaged in these sacrifices were considered bold for daring to approach the gods who created, sustained, and destroyed life.

“According to ancient rites of sacrifice, the sacrificial animal or human should be of high value.”

By sacrificing an individual with high value it showed how vested the individual was to the god.  If an offering was of low value it would have been deemed as disrespectful. A low offering would be considered an ill or substandard being. Within Old Testament tradition, Abel obeyed the ancient tradition when he sacrificed the firstborn of his herds to God. Over 5,000 years ago, Bulls were sacred to Egyptians, being associated with Taurus, a god with both animal and human features. For Egyptians, the sacrifice of a bull was the gift of a demigod to the gods. In the years immediately preceding the emergence of Christianity some mystery cults switched from bull to human sacrifices, using the same ceremonies where the victim was first honored as a god, then put to bloody death. Osiris, the legendary Egyptian ruler who, murdered, became the god of fertility, cast a long shadow over these proceedings.

Sacrificing yourself put you in a higher category within society because you were chosen and therefore distinguished from the rest. The purpose of sacrificial offerings is to show your appreciation and respect for the society as well as the deities you worship.